Batteries 2025, 11(10), 356; doi.org/10.3390/batteries11100356

Swelling Mechanisms, Diagnostic Applications, and Mitigation Strategies in Lithium-Ion Batteries

Sahithi Maddipatla¹, Huzaifa Rauf^1,2, Michael Osterman¹, Naveed Arshad²and Michael Pecht<sup>1

1</sup>Center for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering (CALCE), University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
²LUMS Energy Institute (LEI), Syed Babar Ali School of Science and Engineering (SBASSE), Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS), Lahore 54792, Pakistan

For more information about this article and related research, please contact Prof. Michael Pecht.

Abstract:

Electrochemical processes within a lithium-ion battery cause electrode expansion and gas generation, thus resulting in battery swelling and, in severe cases, reliability and safety issues. This paper presents the mechanisms responsible for swelling, including thermal expansion, lithium intercalation, electrode interphase layer growth, lithium plating, and gas generation, while highlighting their dependence on material properties, design considerations, C-rate, temperature, state of charge (SoC), and voltage. The paper then discusses how swelling correlates with capacity fade, impedance rise, and thermal runaway, and demonstrates the potential of using swelling as a diagnostic and prognostic metric for battery health. Swelling models that connect microscopic mechanisms to macroscopic deformation are then presented. Finally, the paper presents strategies to mitigate swelling, including materials engineering, surface coatings, electrolyte formulation, and mechanical design modifications.

This article is available for free online here.